General Anthropology: A Study of Humanity

General Anthropology Anthropology – study of humanity; humans and cultures 4 Sub-Fields 1. Socio-Cultural – focuses on living human cultures, global patterns of belief and behavior found in modern and historical cultures, participant observation a. Influenced behaviors, customs, traditions, beliefs b. Non-biological of adaptation to the human environment, social and natural 2. Anthropological Linguistics – description and study of structure and history of language and relationship to culture, study of human speech and language 3. Archaeology – study of material culture of past human life and activities c.Cultural history/ chronology d. Life ways e. Processes 4. Study of humans as animals – evolutionary theory and genetics, physical and biological Anthropology is holistic * Culture > Integrated system * Biological, Ecological, Social * Bio-Cultural Approach > feedback loop between culture and environment * NON-ETHNOCENTRIC (more than one way to view the world) Humans are distinct: Animals, Mammals, Primates, Problem solvers, Bipedal locomotion (walk on 2 feet), Opposable thumbs, stereoscopic vision, large brain, reproduction (no estrus cycle), and culture Chapter 1 VocabularyHominins – term for members of the evolutionary group including humans and extinct bipedal relatives Bipedal – walks on two feet / legs Primates – members of the order of mammals Bio-cultural evolution – evolution of human biology and culture, both further influences one another, leads to understanding human evolution Ethnographies – detailed descriptive studies of human societies Paleoanthropology – study of disease and injury in human skeletal Anthropometry – measurement of human body parts DNA – double-stranded molecule that contains genetic code Osteology – study of skeletal materialPrimatology – study of biology and behavior of nonhuman primates Continuum – set of relationship s in which all components fall along a single integrated spectrum (humans are a product of the same force that produced all life on earth) Empirical – relying on experiment or observation Cultural Relativism – cultures have merits or worth within their own historical and environmental contexts Important Names Alfred Wallace f. On the Tendency of Varieties to Depart Indefinitely from the Original Type (1858) g. The best adapted survived; the less well adapted perished Charles Darwin a.On the Origin of Species. (1859) b. Concept of Natural Selection c. Evolution d. isHisTheory * All species > offspring ? food supply * Variation, some more favorable * Struggle for existence * Variations > next generation * Successful variations > diff. results in next species Charles Lyell a. Uniformitarianism Cuvier a. Catastrophism Gregor Mendel a. Worked in the monastery’s garden * Experimented with fertilization of flowers (new color variations) * Fascinated by â€Å"the regul arity with which the same hybrid forms always reappeared when fertilization took place between the same species. b. Mendel’s experiments * Determine the number of different forms of hybrids * Arrange them according to generations * Attempt to evaluate the statistical relationships c. Common Garden Pea * Seed shape, seed color, flower color, pod shape, pod color, flower position, stem height d. Law of Segregation * Discrete units of genetic information are passed from one generation to the next e. Different physical expressions because some traits were dominant over others * Dominant Trait i. Visible or Measurable ii.Prevents the appearance of the recessive trait iii. Round is dominant * Recessive Trait iv. Not visible or measurable when paired with the dominant allele v. Only visible or measurable when dominant allele is absent Gould and Eldredge a. Punctuated equilibrium: the tempo and mode of evolution reconsidered Lamarck a. Theory of Acquired Characteristics Linnaeus a. A dherent to great chain of being b. Developed system of classification * Binomial nomenclature Thomas Malthus a. Population growths unrestrained by natural causes will double every 25 years. . BUT, capacity for food production increase only in a straight arithmetic progression. c. The impulse to multiply is counteracted by THE STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE d. THE INFINITE FERTILITY OF MANKIND VERSUS THE LIMITED SIZE & RESOURCES OF THE EARTH. e. The Dilemma of Population Growth i. Preventative checks (foresight) vs. positive check (infant mortality, famine) Chapter 2 Vocabulary Fixity of Species – the notion that species, once created, can never change, opposes biological evolution Reproductively isolated – groups or organisms, ainly because of genetic differences, are prevented from mating and reproducing offspring with members of other groups Reproductive success – the number of offspring an individual produces and rears to reproductive age; and individuals genetic con tribution to the next generation Selective pressures – forces in the environment that influence reproductive success in individuals Genome – the entire genetic makeup of an individual or species Fertility – the ability to conceive and produce healthy offspring Chapter 3 VocabularyGametes – reproductive cells (eggs and sperm in animals) Somatic cell – all cells in body except those involved in reproduction Zygote – cell formed by the union of an egg and sperm cell, contains chromosomes Nucleotides – basic units of DNA moleculeEnzymes – specialized proteins that initiate and direct chemical reactions in the body Hemoglobin – protein molecule that occurs in red blood cells and binds to oxygen molecules Mitosis – simple cell division; produces two identical daughter cells Meiosis – cell division in specialized cells in ovaries and testes Recombination – the exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes; cross-over Genome – entire genetic makeup of an individual or species Evolutionary Theory Catastrophism * Cuvier * New species could not evolve from old Time-to-time catastrophes occur, destroys all living things in certain areas * New forms populate area by migration * Incoming migrants had more modern appearance due to the result of more recent creation events Uniformitarianism * Lyell * Processes at work today = active throughout history of earth = those occurred in past * James Hutton = ancient, on-going, continuous, without end * Geological change ( earthquakes, volcanoes, etc) were consistent, uniformed, constant through time Forces of EvolutionEvolution – (Darwin) the gradual unfolding of new varieties of life from previous forms * Modern Synthesis ( 2 stage process) 1. The production and redistribution of variation (inherited differences among organisms) * Mutation (in sex cells): change in DNA, one allele changes to another, also point mutations * Mutagens are agents of mutations: chemicals, radiation, extreme temperatures * Passes to offspring in gametes not somatic cells Migration (gene flow): exchange of genes between population, migration * Genetic drift (random force): function of population size * Rare allele may not be passed to offspring due to small population, allele may disappear * Founder Effect: allele frequencies alter in small pop. that are taken from larger pop. or parents pop. , they colonize a new location 2. Natural selection (individual and population) affects their ability to successfully reproduce * 4 net reproductive success * Ex: peppered moth Great Chain of Being * Infinite series of forms: simple – complex The universe was â€Å"full† * Progressive grading: inferior – superior * Every creature’s position was â€Å"fixed† * No new species * No extinctions Species * Proposed in the 17th century * Groups of plants and animals could be differentiated by other groups b y their ability to mate with one another and produce fertile offspring (John Ray) * Frequently share similarities with other species > second level of classification > genus * Linnaeus > binomial nomenclature > genus and species names are used to refer to species * Ex: homo sapiens = human beings * Taxonomy: system of classification Genus and species * Class and order Theory of Acquired Characteristics * Jean Baptiste Lamarck (1744-1829) * There is a dynamic interaction between organic forms and the environment. * Characteristics that an individual might acquire in a lifetime would be passed on to succeeding generations. Principles of Inheritance Principle of Independent Assortment * The distribution of one pair of alleles into gametes does not influence the distribution of another pair * The genes controlling different traits are inherited independently of one another Principle of Segregation Genes (alleles) occur in pairs because chromosomes occur in pairs * During gamete formatio n, the members of each pair of alleles separate, so that each gamete contains one member of each pair Genes and Chromosomes Allele and Gene * Alternate forms of a gene * Sequence of DNA Chromosome * Discrete structures composed of DNA and protein found only in nuclei of cells Co-dominance * The expression of two alleles in heterozygote, the products of both are present * Ex: blood type AB Cross-over the exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes; recombination * when paired chromosomes exchange DNA, genes sometimes find themselves in different genetic environments Dihybrid crosses * These are ALWAYS the ratios of a cross between two HETEROZYGOUS individuals, when two variables are involved. * RrYy X RrYy DNA, base pair * DNA molecule has 4 chemical bases 1. Adenine = A 2. Thymine = T 3. Cytosine = C 4. Guanine = G * Except for protein synthesis * Adenine and Thymine are base pairs = AT * Cytosine and Guanine are base pairs = CG In protein synthesis RNA subs Uracil = U for Thymine * AT > AU Dominant = shows, Recessive = does not show Down’s syndrome * Trisomy 21, abnormal number of autosomes compatible with life beyond the first few years after birth * Caused by the presence of 3 copies of chromosome 21 * Mental impairment, heart defects, respiratory infections, leukemia Hemophilia * bleeding disorder in which the blood doesn't clot normally * Primarily only males * Recessive allele for hemophilia on the female â€Å"X† chromosome. * Male hemophiliacs receive the deleterious gene from their mothers. There is an equal chance that a female will have the recessive allele on one of her two â€Å"X† chromosomes. * H = Normal clotting h = Hemophilia * HH Female = Normal * Hh Female = Normal â€Å"Carrier† * HY Male = Normal * hY Male = Hemophilia Genotype = genetic make-up of a trait Phenotype = physical expression of the genotype Homologous Chromosomes = paired chromosomes, paired during meiosis and participate in cross-o ver, same loci Homozygous = same alleles Heterozygous = different alleles Pleiotropic Traits * multiple effects at different times in the life span The phenomenon of one gene being responsible for or affecting more than one phenotypic characteristic * A synergetic affect on more than one part of the body * Ex: sickle cell, albinism Polygenic Traits * Traits that are influenced by genes at 2 or more loci * Ex: skin color, eye color, hair color * Many are influenced by environmental factors * Ex: nutrition, sunlight exposure Polymorphism * Loci with more than one allele * Above 1% in the population * Traits that differ in expression between individuals and populations * Ex: ABO blood, unbalanced Protein and Amino Acids 3-D molecules that serve a wide variety of functions through their ability to bind to other molecules * Small molecules that are the components of proteins Sex Linkage * 23rd Chromosomal Pair * Females: XX * Males: XY * Homogametic versus Heterogametic * Sex linked trai ts * Ex: colorblindness, hemophilia * Male hemophiliacs receive gene from their mothers Sickle Cell Trait/Anemia ; Malaria * Hemoglobin (146 Amino Acids) * Sickle cell caused by switching one base pair (point mutation) * Heterozygous carriers are much more resistant to malarial infection * Malaria * People of all ages susceptible Four types of human malaria caused by four species of parasites (Plasmodium) * Transmitted by mosquitoes Blood and Blood Types * At least 29 human blood group systems * Antigen = large molecules found on the surface of cells , several different loci govern various antigens on red and white blood cells * Antibody – each type is unique and defends the body against one specific type of antigen * Three important blood groups: * ABO System * Four blood types: * A (dominant) antigen * B (dominant) antigen * AB(co-dominance)antigen, universal recipient * O(recessive ii)none, universal donor Alleles are designated as follows: * A = IA B = IB O= i * 4 phenoty pes 6 genotypes * Rh Factor * Another group of antigens found on red blood cells. * Rh Positive = Rh+ (Dominant allele) * Rh Negative = Rh- (Recessive allele) * Rh- blood does not agglutinate with the antiserum * Greatest problem is not with transfusions, but between mother and fetus. * A problem ONLY if the mother is Rh- and the father is Rh+ * A serum containing Anti-Rh+ may be administered to Rh- mothers after their first birth. (RhoGam) * MN Group * Three genotypes (Chromosome 4) * MM MN * NN * Appear to be no incompatibilities that cause complications during transfusions or between mother and fetus. * Co-dominant group * 3 genotypes produce 3 phenotypes Population Genetics Allopatric speciation * Speciation by geographic isolation * Gradual changes can lead to sufficient genetic differences Ecological Niche * The position of a species within its physical and biological environments * Components: diet, terrain, type of predators, vegetation, relationships with other species, and activity patterns * Niches are unique to each species * Together makes up an ecosystemFitness = measure of the relative reproductive success of individuals, genetic contribution to the next generation Gene Flow = exchange of genes between populations Gene Pool = all of the genes shared by the reproductive members of a population Hardy-Weinberg (Equilibrium Principle) * No genetic drift, mutation, migration, selection * Random mating * Math relationship of allele and genotype * A = p a = q; p + q = 1 or 100% [ alleles in gene pool] * In the absence of evolutionary processes, gene frequencies (allele frequencies) will remain constant from generation to generation * P2 + 2pq + q2 = 1 [ proportion of genotypes] AA + Aa + aa = 1 Macroevolution = changes produced only after many generations, such as the new appearance of a new species Microevolution = small changes occurring within species, such as changes in allele frequencies Phyletic Gradualism * Slow changes result in new species * T he complete fossil record of an evolving group would display a series of forms with finely graded transitional differences between each ancestor and its descendant * Many â€Å"missing links† would be present Punctuated Equilibrium Uneven, nongradual process of long stasis and quick spurts * The concept that evolutionary change proceeds through long periods of stasis punctuated by rapid periods of change * There are no â€Å"missing links†, gaps are real Random Mating = no bias in who mates; any male is assumed to have an equal chance of mating with any female Selective Pressure = forces in the environment that influence reproductive success in individuals Selective Agent = the agent or cause of the selective pressure event?Sympatric = process through which new species evolve from a single ancestral species while inhabiting the same geographic region Unit of Evolution * Population * Evolves Unit of Selection * Individual * Does not evolve Human Variation Race * breeds of domestic animals, their group measurement, or their descent from a common ancestor * Has no useful biological meaning because variations in human appearance occur on a continuum. Acclimatization * Physiological responses to changes in the environment that occur during an individual’s lifetime * Maybe be temporary or permanent Its capacity may typify an entire species or population * Under genetic influence, it’s subject to evolutionary factors such as natural selection and genetic drift Allen’s Rule * Concerns shape of the body * Colder climates = shorter appendages, adaptive for preventing heat loss * Vice versa Bergmann’s Rule * Concerns the relationship of body mass or volume to surface area * In mammals, body size is greater in population that lives in colder climates * Vice versa Kuru * Neurodegenerative disorder * Tremor and loss of balance First appeared in New Guinea * Primarily affected adult women and children * Three main stages of progressi on: * Ambulant – unsteady, tremor, speech slur * Sedentary – muscle jerks, laughter outbursts, depression and mental slowing * Terminal – Urinary and fecal incontinence, difficulty swallowing, deep ulcerations appear * Caused by cerebellar dysfunction * It is a prion disease = infectious particles composed of a protein that causes neurodegenerative disorders Kwashiorkor * Severe protein deficiency * Tissue swelling * Anemia * Loss of hair Apathy Lactase Persistence * The continued production of lactase, the enzyme that breaks down lactose ( sugar milk) * Allows some adults to digest fresh milk products Marasmus * Caused by the combine effects of protein and calorie deficiency * PEM (protein-energy malnutrition) Osteology Bone Markers * Heterogeneous * Dynamic Organ * Constantly remodeled and replaced * Extremely responsive to stress * Bone Mass IS NOT constant Characteristics of Bone * Compact bone: * Most dense; * Least vascularized; * Often covers cancellous b one * Cancellous bone: Heavily vascularized with large sacs (marrow spaces that produce red blood cells) and pores * Subchondrial bone: * A type of compact bone located at the joints and covered with cartilage in life * Generally less dense and more vascularized than regular compact bone Bone Growth * The primary centers of growth are the DIAPHYSES; Responsible for most of the growth of long bones * Secondary centers are the EPIPHYSES and are separated from the diaphyses by the†¦ * METAPHYSES, which are thin layers of cartilage being overtaken by bone formation. This is the actual site of bone growth.Harris Line = growth interruption, nutritional deficits Human Bone Growth * Human Dental Formula = 2. 1. 2. 3 * Determine sex * Determine age * Physical characteristics of populations; * Population structure and demography; * State of health, longevity, disease during life. * Cause of death. How is this different than â€Å"Manner of Death†? * Evidence of trauma. * Nutrition al history (bone chemistry; dental wear). * Relatedness of populations (DNA and genetic bone characteristics) * Social Complexity (cultural modifications, differential nutritional status, health, grave goods). Belief systems (treatment of dead). Chapter 4 Vocabulary Hybrids – offspring of parents who differ from each other, heterozygotes Locus – the position on a chromosome where a given gene occurs Mendelian traits – characteristics that are influenced by alleles at only one genetic locus Chapter 5 Vocabulary Chordata – phylum of the animal kingdom that includes vertebrates Vertebrates – animals with segmented, bony spinal columns Homologies – similarities between organisms based on descent from a common ancestor Analogies – â€Å" †¦.. based strictly on common function Homoplasy – same evolutionary development in different groups of organisms Clade – group of organisms sharing a common ancestor Speciation  œ process by which a new species evolves from an earlier species; most basic process in macroevolution Genus – group of closely related species Chapter 12 Vocabulary Homeostasis- condition of balance or stability Population genetics – the study of the frequency of alleles, genotypes, and phenotypes in populations from a micro evolutionary perspective

Unit 8 Study Guide

Unit 8 Study Guide 1. How many liters of blood does the average adult have? 5 Liters 2. What are the components of blood? Red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets, and plasma. 3. What does the hematocrit measure? The number of cells or volume. 4. What percentage of blood is cells? 45% 5. What percentage of blood is made of plasma? 55% 6. What do erythrocytes look like and what is their function? Erythrocytes are biconcave disks that are 7. 5 micrometers. They have no nucleus, even after they have matured and they are composed of one third hemoglobin. They function as a transportation system for gas. . How do mature erythrocytes differ from immature ones? They lack a nucleus when they mature 8. What is a normal RBC Count? 4,600,000/cubic centimeter 9. What makes blood red? Hemoglobin 10. How long does the average RBC live? 120 days 11. What hormone controls the rate of rbc synthesis? Erythropoietin 12. What element is part of a red blood cell? Iron 13. What is sickle-cell anemia and what is its cause? Sickle-cell anemia is a disorder in the red blood cells which reduces the oxygen in the blood and results in the RBC’s being crescent shaped. 14. What are the causes of AnemiaThe causes of Anemia include a lack of enough RBC’s, including iron deficiency, B complex deficiency, erythropoietin deficiency, or too many RBC’s destroyed, which includes sickle cell anemia, sickle train, thallasemias (Alpha hemoglobin chain, beta hemoglobin chain, small RBC’s. ) 15. What is the difference between sickle cell anemia and sickle trait? It is possible for a person to have a mixture of normal and bad hemoglobin in red blood cells without having sickle cell disease. This condition is â€Å"sickle cell train† in which people have enough of the normal hemoglobin in their red blood cells to prevent them from becoming sickle haped, causing sickle cell anemia. 16. What percentage of white blood cells are eosinophils? 1-3% 17. What is a Lymphocyt e? A Lymphocyte is a small, round long lived agranulocyte that is composed of 25-33% of white blood cells. Its function is to attack antigens. 18. What is a chemical that stimulates cells to produce antibodies? Antigen 19. What percent of blood is lymphocytes 25-33% of the blood 20. What is a normal white Blood Cell Count? 5,000-10,000 White blood cells 21. What does a rise in WBCS indicate? A decrease?A rise indicates an infection such as leukocytosis and a decrease, or leucopenia, may be a sign of viral infections. 22. What is a normal WBC differential? 4,500-10,000 23. What is pus? It is made up of leukocytes, bacteria, and damaged body cells. 24. What do elevated monocytes indicate? They could indicate an infection 25. What is Diapedesis? It allows WBC’s to leave circulation 26. What is leukemia? It is a type of cancer that begins in the tissue that forms blood. Leukemia patients bleed because of platelet deficiency. 27. What is the function of fibrinogen?It helps stop bl eeding by helping blood clots to form. It is converted into fibrin during blood coagulation. 28. What are 3 Lipoprotein molecules? VLDL – triglycerides LDL – cholesterol HDL – high protein 29. What is agglutination? Agglutination is a clumping together of bacteria or red cells when held together by antibodies, or agglutinins. 30. What keeps blood from clotting? Anticoagulants are what prevent the clotting of blood. 31. What is fibrinogen? Fibrinogen is a protein that the liver produces which helps stop bleeding by helping to form blood clots. 32. What is a globulin?A globulin is a plasma protein which transports lipids and fat-soluble vitamins in the blood and helps to produce antibodies. 33. What are the major ABO groups? A, B, AB, and O blood types 34. What are antigens and antibodies associated with each blood group? Type A blood contains the antigen A and Anti B antibodies, type B blood contains antigen B and Anti A antibodies, type AB has antigens A and B a nd no antibodies, and type O has no antigens and Anti A and B antibodies. 35. What blood type is universal donor? Universal recipient? Type O is the universal blood donor and type AB is the universal recipient. 6. What is the Rh factor and why is it significant? The Rh factor is an antigen that can be found in the red blood cells of most people. People with Rh factor are considered Rh positive and those who do not are considered Rh negative. Rh negative people are unable to be transfused with positive blood once they are exposed to it. A Rh negative mother is able to develop antibodies to donate to her Rh positive child. Blood which is used in transfusions must match donors for Rh status and ABO blood group. Rh- patients will develop anemia if they are given Rh+ blood.

An explanation of the history of the corrections system and varying approaches to corrections by era Essay

An explanation of the history of the corrections system and varying approaches to corrections by era Introduction                   Incarceration is a type of punishing criminal that became prevalent in the USA prior to the Revolution, although corrective imprisonment efforts started in England as early as 1500s, a number of detention facilities and dungeons as forms of prisons were in existence ever since that time. Efforts done in building prisons in was in 3 major ways (Ayers, 1984). The first starting in the period of the Jackson Ian Era that became prevalent in rehabilitative and imprisonment labor as the main punishment for many crimes in virtually all places by Civil War time. Subsequently there was incarceration following the Civil War gaining drive in the Liberal Period, getting some tools—like bail, trial, and unstipulated penalizing—in the conventional of corrective practice (Ekirch, 1987). Lastly, subsequently after the early 1970s, the USA has been involved in a historical exceptional development of its incarceration organizations at level of state and federal. In the meantime in 1973, the imprisoned persons rose in a five-fold, and in any given year 7, 000,000 individuals are under control and supervision of correction. In these times of reforming and constructing prison great alterations in the prison responsibilities, missions and structure systems of state and federal agencies for supervising and administering them, in addition to the political and legal status of prisoners themselves (Christianson, 1998). Prison is among one of a number of sanctions available to the courts to deal with those who commit criminal offences. Imprisonment today is the harshest sanction available (Alexander, 2012). In the 1600s and 1700s                   Approval of criminal behavior tends to be proceedings of public aimed at humiliating the person and avoiding others from the wrongdoing; these are inclusive of the branding, stooping stool, whipping, scorning, and the stocks (Christianson, 1998). At that time the sentence for most wrongdoings was death. Prison inclined to being a habitation where individuals were held up as they waited for their punishment and prior to their trial (Ekirch, 1987). It was hardly utilized in punishing in its way. Everyone inclusive of boys, girls, men and women were locked together in prisons (Christianson, 1998). This period prisons were poorly kept and frequently managed by careless prison warders. People died from diseases like gal fever that is a form of typhus. In this Era, a prototype correction building was build – the London Bride well. Correction houses were at first part of the Poor Law machinery, anticipated to impart industry habits by prison labor (Alexander, 2012). Many individuals locked in them were minor offenders, tramps and the unsystematic indigenous unfortunate people. Towards the end of 17th century, they were captivated into the system of prisons by local Justices of the Peace control. Question Number 2                   Description of the participants of the corrections system and their roles Correctional officer (CO):                   He assists in controlling, directing and monitoring the movements and activities of inmates (Ayers, 1984). He makes sure prison rules are followed, ensuring the safety and security of inmates, staff, visitors and the community (Alexander, 2012). As a visitor you will frequently come in contact with Correctional Officer. Correctional Sergeant                   Correctional sergeants supervise Correctional officers and perform custody work, which involves providing safety and security as well as controlling, directing and monitoring the activities and movement of adult inmates (Ekirch, 1987). Correctional Sergeants have a variety of duties depending upon where they are assigned (Alexander, 2012). Each facility has a public Access or visit Sergeant who generally can resolve issues relating to the visiting process. Correctional Lieutenant                   A correctional lieutenant is responsible for security operations during his her shift and supervises Correctional Sergeants (Christianson, 1998). This position manages any response to emergency situations that may arise. Correctional Captain                   This is the senior custody staff member responsible for facility-wide custody and security operations and supervision of Lieutenants (Ayers, 1984). Community Corrections Officer (CCO), Classification Counselor (CC)                   Each inmate has an assigned CCO or CC, depending on the facility in which they reside or the county in which they are supervised (Ekirch, 1987).. Counselors handle day-to-day issues or concerns of inmates in a housing unit. Counselors are responsible for classification and case management (education and work programs) and release preparation. CCOs are in the community offices, pre-release and work release facilities, providing a similar service to inmates who are on community supervision. Correctional Unit Supervisor (CUS)                   A CUS is responsible for the management of a housing unit, including the supervision of CCs or CCOs, and custody staff (Sergeants and Cos) (Alexander, 2012). Question Number 3   Impediments and issues faced by corrections admins when running a prison                   According to Alexander (2012), present prison populations being a mixture of short term and long term and â€Å"lifers†, definite and indefinite sentenced inmates, the sick the healthy, the young, the old. Rehabilitation and a better way of life are some of the reasoning behind such programs though the necessity of some of these programs is under scrutiny (Christianson, 1998). Politicians and tax payers frown upon such programs as conjugal visitation, some feeling that the programs are too risky and sometimes too expensive (Christianson, 1998). At the extreme this programs are looked upon as a luxury and lessen the punishment effect of incarceration. Management control of facilities is another problem (Ayers, 1984). The thought of contracting communicable diseases and being abused by violent inmates threatens staff and the general population. One solution is to remove predatory and other dangerous offenders from the population (Ekirch, 1987). HIV-Positive inmates, serial killers, violent sex offenders being some. Many have proposed isolation of problem offenders. It is a scary concept that an innocent person convicted of a crime to have contracted Aids while being incarcerated (Alexander, 2012). Even scarier to perceive is if the inmate contracted the disease as a result of rape (Blackmon, 2008). The rates of HIV and AIDS in prisons are estimated at five times higher than within the general population. This fact has been attributed to a higher number of inmates sharing of needles and also of inmates that participate in unprotected sex in prisons (Alexander, 2012). As of 1996, there were 25,000 inmates with HIV and by then only 16 states tested all inmates entering prison. The dilemma facing corrections is whether they should be segregated from the population to stop the spread of disease. The quality of life of seropositive inmates is greatly affected by administrative decisions on screening and detection, housing programs, access to quality medical treatment, mental health support, and funding. Management of HIV is very complicated (Ekirch, 1987). One must take multiple medications on varying schedules, custody and health staff must develop a supportive medication administrative system (Ayers, 1984). HIV-Positive need proper treatment and may require a higher level care that may not be available at all areas of institutions. Patients with HIV infection may require isolation if they have pulmonary tuberculosis. Obviously there is need for segregation. There is the ethical issue of whether it is right to segregate all HIV-positive inmates from the general population. Activities are important to the daily lives of all inmates (Ayers, 1984). Aids patients are no different. Decisions on housing HIV-Positive inmates should be based on what is appropriate for their age, gender, custody class, not just for the fact that they are seropositive. Not all HIV-Positive inmates are a danger to other inmates (Blackmon, 2008). The type of offence, length of time sentenced general behavior, and expert report gathered at the classification stage will be a better indication of whether they will pose a danger to the prison system. Besides communicable diseases, criminal recidivists pose an enormous social problem to society Hirsch, Adam J. (1992). A lethal predator such as serial killers and violent sex offenders pose a particular problem not just in the free world but inside prison cells. Most profilers say serial killers do not learn from mistakes in their previous killings. They feel no guilt, no remorse and have an attitude of total disdain towards their victims. There’s a self-importance that runs in all of them and must demonstrate mental abnormality, usually a combination of sexual sadism and psychopathy (Blackmon, 2008). Conjugal visitation is not available to most married and unmarried inmates in U.S. prisons it is allowed only in six states, California, Connecticut, Mississippi, New Mexico, New York and Washington (Christianson, 1998). Viewed as an unnecessary prisoner privilege in some jurisdictions, many members of the general public such as lawmakers frown upon such issue. The thought of inmates enjoying themselves while serving a punitive prison sentence is largely unacceptable to innocent, American citizens who fall prey to criminal acts. Many view visitations as improving prison environment by giving inmates something to look forward to and an incentive to participate in rehabilitative programs, and a mechanism with which to cope with prison life (Christianson, 1998). Reflecting on the prison population and some of the issues for the future of corrections, employees will have to become better versed in supervising and caring for the very dangerous, the average, the very young, the very old, the mentally ill and the infirm (Blackmon, 2008). Question Number 4                   A complete description of the rights of prisoners and the Administration of required services by prison officials: In accordance to Alexander, Michelle (2012), these rights were embraced by the First United Nations Congress on the Prevention of crimes and the treatment of offenders held at Geneva in 1995, Part I of the rules covers the general management of institutions and is applicable to all categories of prisoners, criminal or civil, untried or convicted, Basic principle There shall be no discrimination on grounds of race, color, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status (Christianson, 1998). On the other hand, it is necessary to respect the religious beliefs and moral precepts of the group to which a prisoner belongs. Register According to Ayers, Edward L. (1984), In every place where persons are imprisoned there shall be kept a bound registration book with numbered pages in which shall be entered in respect of each prisoner received: Information concerning his identity The reasons for his commitment and the authority therefor; The day and hour of his admission and release No person shall be received in an institution without a valid commitment order of which the details shall have been previously entered in the register is in accordance to Bookspan, Shelley (1991). . Separation of categories 8. The different categories of prisoners shall be kept in separate institutions or parts of institutions taking account of their sex, age, criminal record, the legal reason for their detention and the necessities of their treatment in accordance to Ekirch, A. Roger (1987).. Thus, Men and women shall so far as possible be detained in separate institutions; in an institution which receives both men and women the whole of the premises                   allocated to women shall be entirely separate; Untried prisoners shall be kept separate from convicted prisoners; Persons imprisoned for debt and other civil prisoners shall be kept separate from persons imprisoned by reason of a criminal offence Hirsch, Adam J. (1992); Young prisoners shall be kept separate from adults. Accommodation                   9. (1) where sleeping accommodation is in individual cells or rooms, each prisoner shall occupy by night a cell or room by himself (Christianson, 1998). If for some reasons, such as temporary overcrowding, it becomes necessary for the central prison administration to make an exception to this rule, it is not desirable to have two prisoners in a cell or room (Blackmon, 2008). (2) Where dormitories are used, they shall be occupied by prisoners carefully selected as being suitable to associate with one another in those conditions (Christianson, 1998). There shall be regular supervision by night, in keeping with the nature of the institution. 10. All accommodation provided for the use of prisoners and in particular all sleeping accommodation shall meet all requirements of health, due regard being paid to climatic conditions and particularly to cubic content of air, minimum floor space, lighting, heating and ventilation (Ayers, 1984). 11. Every place the prisoners are needed to work or live. (a) The windows shall be large enough to enable the prisoners to read or work by natural light, and shall be so constructed that they can allow the entrance of fresh air whether or not there is artificial ventilation (Alexander, 2012). (b) Artificial light shall be delivered adequately for the prisoners to read or work without injury to vision. 12. The sanitary installations shall be adequate to enable every prisoner to comply with the needs of nature when necessary and in a clean and decent manner (Christianson, 1998). 13. Adequate bathing and shower installations shall be provided so that every prisoner may be enabled and required to have a bath or shower, at a temperature suitable to the climate, as frequently as necessary for general hygiene according to season and geographical region, but at least once a week in a temperate climate (Ekirch, 1987). 14. All parts of an institution regularly used by prisoners shall be properly maintained and kept scrupulously clean at all times (Alexander, 2012). Personal hygiene                   15. Prisoners shall be required to keep their persons clean, and to this end they shall be provided with water and with such toilet articles as are necessary for health and cleanliness (Ayers, 1984). 16. In order that prisoners may maintain a good appearance compatible with their self-respect, facilities shall be provided for the proper care of the hair and beard, and men shall be enabled to shave regularly (Alexander, 2012). Clothing and bedding                   17. (1) Every prisoner who is not allowed to wear his own clothing shall be provided with an outfit of clothing suitable for the climate and adequate to keep him in good health (Ayers, 1984). Such clothing shall in no manner be degrading or humiliating. (2) All clothing shall be clean and kept in proper condition (Christianson, 1998).. Underclothing shall be changed and washed as often as necessary for the maintenance of hygiene. (3) In exceptional circumstances, whenever a prisoner is removed outside the institution for an authorized purpose, he shall be allowed to wear his own clothing or other inconspicuous clothing (Blackmon, 2008). 18. If prisoners are allowed to wear their own clothing, arrangements shall be made on their admission to the institution to ensure that it shall be clean and fit for use (Ayers, 1984). 19. Every prisoner shall, in accordance with local or national standards, be provided with a separate bed, and with separate and sufficient bedding which shall be clean when issued, kept in good order and changed often enough to ensure its cleanliness (Christianson, 1998). Food                   20. (1) Every prisoner shall be provided by the administration at the usual hours with food of nutritional value adequate for health and strength, of wholesome quality and well prepared and served (Ekirch, 1987). (2) Drinking water shall be available to every prisoner whenever he needs it. Exercise and sport                   21. (1) Every prisoner who is not employed in outdoor work shall have at least one hour of suitable exercise in the open air daily if the weather permits (Ekirch, 1987). (2) Young prisoners, and others of suitable age and physique, shall receive physical and recreational training during the period of exercise (Alexander, 2012). To this end space, installations and equipment should be provided. Medical services                   22. (1) At every institution there shall be available the services of at least one qualified medical officer who should have some knowledge of psychiatry(Alexander, 2012). The medical services should be organized in close relationship to the general health administration of the community or nation. They shall include a psychiatric service for the diagnosis and, in proper cases, the treatment of states of mental abnormality. (2) Sick prisoners who require specialist treatment shall be transferred to specialized institutions or to civil hospitals (Ayers, 1984). Where hospital facilities are provided in an institution, their equipment, furnishings and pharmaceutical supplies shall be proper for the medical care and treatment of sick prisoners, and there shall be a staff of suitable trained officers. (3) The services of a qualified dental officer shall be available to every prisoner. 23. (1) In women’s institutions there shall be special accommodation for all necessary pre-natal and post-natal care and treatment. Arrangements shall be made wherever practicable for children to be born in a hospital outside the institution (Ekirch, 1987). If a child is born in prison, this fact shall not be mentioned in the birth certificate. Due to limitation of pages I shall summarize the rest as medical care shall be adequately provided to prisoners, discipline and order shall be maintained with firmness so as to have safe custody and a well and orderly life (Alexander, 2012)†¦ No prisoner shall be punished unless he has been informed of the offence alleged against him and given a proper opportunity of presenting his defense (Christianson, 1998). The medical officer shall visit daily and advice director if he considers the termination or alteration of the punishment necessary. Question Number 5                   A detailed description of alternative forms of corrections, including methods of rehabilitation and reintroduction to society. Prison abolition movement attempts to eliminate prisons and the prison system (Christianson, 1998). Prison abolitionists see the prisons as an ineffective way to decrease crime and reform criminals, and that the modern criminal justice system to be racist, sexist, classist (Ayers, 1984). One of the arguments made for prison abolition is that the majority of people accused of crime cannot afford to pay a lawyer. Ways of eliminating incarceration could include: Decriminalization Abolishing the system of bail Establishing community based dispute and mediation centers Restitution ie creating community mechanisms for assuring payment or services by wrong doers to the wronged Fines Suspended sentences Community probation programs Alternative sentencing Decriminalization                   Process of decriminalization means to wipe certain laws off the books. Crimes considered for decriminalization are those that are victimless (Christianson, 1998). This is defined as offences that do not result in someone feeling that s/he has been injured in a way of impelling him/her to bring the offence to the attention of the authorities (Ekirch, 1987). The essential factor is that there is no victim to bring complaint, three statutes emerge within this definition: moral statutes, illness statutes, nuisance statutes. Victimless crimes maybe irritating, annoying, or troublesome in general, but they are not really injurious to anyone in particular, they are â€Å"crimes† because the law says they are â€Å"crimes† (Christianson, 1998). Among those usually sighted are non-commercial gambling, prostitution, â€Å"deviant† sexual acts in private between consenting adult, public intoxication, possession, sale and distribution of illegal drugs, â€Å"blue laws† against doing business on Sundays, loitering, disorderly conduct and vagrancy, truancy, incorrigible, stubborn or ungovernable behavior Abolitionists advocate drastically limiting the role of criminal law (Ayers, 1984). It is realized that criminal sanctions are not an effective way of dealing with social problem. There is unjust and arbitrary law enforcement. Powerless persons are imprisoned while powerful persons go free (Ayers, 1984). Blacks and poor people bear the brunt of unequal law enforcement. Morality cannot be coerced through law. A democratic society should tolerate a wide range of individual differences (Alexander, 2012). A person’s right to do what s/he wishes should be respected as long as s/he does not infringe upon the right of others. Over criminalization encourages the wide use of discretionary power in law enforcement, because there is no complainant, police resort to questionable means of enforcement, investigative techniques used to gather evidence are often immoral and sometimes illegal (Ekirch, 1987). These include entrapment, use of informers, wiretapping, and infringement of constitutional rights such as illegal search and seizure, invasion of right of privacy and self-incrimination (Ayers, 1984). Enforcement of victimless crimes also encourages corruption. Graft and pay-offs are frequently made by neighborhood numbers rackets and places of prostitution (Blackmon, 2008). Crime syndicates manage to soak up much money flowing through illicit â€Å"industries† such as gambling and drugs. Prostitutes are arrested mostly the ones who are black, while most of their victims are white aged between 30 and 60 years thus there is selective enforcement                   Abolition of bail                   All persons are innocent of crime until proven guilty. No one may be deprived of liberty without the due process of law (Christianson, 1998). The mechanism developed by British society for this purpose was bail. De Tocqueville clearly saw that the bail system is inherently discriminatory against the poor (Ekirch, 1987). By placing a price tag on the right to freedom before trial beyond the reach of indigent, it makes a mockery of the presumption of innocence and provides the underpinning for the use of the criminal (in) justice systems by the powerful to control the powerless. Bail has been shown to be unnecessary to accomplish its stated objective of return to court (Ayers, 1984). The costs are paid in three coins: in human suffering by the poor who are its hostages; in money by the taxpaying middle class; and in the erosion of civil liberties arising from the system’s hidden abuses. In accordance to Hirsch, Adam J. (1992), the beneficiaries are: professional criminals, for whom ransom is a â€Å"business expense†; the wealthy, who are protected by a custody system paid for mainly by the taxes of the middle class as an instrument of social control against the poor and dissident; and bonds people, who make their living from the bail system and are pledged to serve that system. Despite proof that the system of bail is unnecessary to assure court appearances, the holding of hostages continues (Blackmon, 2008). The cost of their incarceration both in economic and human terms is staggering (Ekirch, 1987). Half or more of accused persons are detained in jail pending trial. On a single day, if the system of bail were abolished, upwards of 50,000 pretrial detainees could be released from jail and thousands in the arrest and arraignment stage would avoid the cage entirely. Bail has been used as an instrument of preventive detention and as a constitutionally guaranteed avenue of pretrial release (Alexander, 2012). There are thus prejudices too much room in the bail system and no defense against, the administration of justice by personal from which no one, including the judge is free. The abolition of bail would expose this hidden agenda and force the development of open and fair rules and judicial accountability. Community dispute and mediation centers                   Mediation centers present a unique opportunity for grass roots involvement in the process of justice and excarceration (Blackmon, 2008). Abolitionists recommend the establishment of such centers in every neighborhood By the use of the moot model where neighbors and kin of the disputants listen to the airing of disputes (Christianson, 1998). It is not coercive and allows the disputants to discuss their problems In an atmosphere free from the questions of past fact and guilt. Restitution                   Payment can be made by the offender for a particular amount of dollars for a particular kind of injury and y amount of dollars for another, as in workmen’s compensation or in tort (Gottschalk, 2006). The lawbreaker then is kept in the community and corrects his/her wrong, corrects discomfort and inconvenience of victim, saves community and individual economic and psychic costs of trial etc., reduces role of criminal law (Ekirch, 1987). Fines                   The poor unable to pay fines systematically filled the jails until a supreme court decision in 1971 ruled that an indigent could not be imprisoned upon non- payment of a fine but must be given an opportunity to pay in installments, the wrong doer is then able to stay in the community, saving the state probation expenses, welfare expenses, and the human costs of caging. Suspended sentences                   Used as a mechanism of establishing responsibility for wrong doing without imposing punishment or any supervisory conditions on the wrongdoer , the defendant loses fewer civil right, while probation is likened to suspended sentence, they differ in that probation carries with it the threat of imprisonment, most variations of the suspended sentence require that no law be violated (Blackmon, 2008). It is the least punitive of a range of alternative sentences. Probation                   It is the most commonly accepted and widely used mode of excarceration (Blackmon, 2008). Though mostly used on non- violent crimes, it has been extended to include other homicides and other serious wrongs which usually result in imprisonment. In unsupervised probation, persons would be under no compulsion to report or participate in programs, but could request for help from probation officers in accordance to Hirsch, Adam J. (1992). Question Number 6.                   A comprehensive list of alternative strategies to incarceration with an assessment, both pro and con, showing their worth as related to traditional, incarceration strategies. The predominate purpose this question was asked was to illustrate that there are programs accessible and effective substitutes obtainable instead of incarceration. Some of the famous ones used at present will be described briefly. Development in Early childhood: The Head Start program returns about seven dollars in benefits for every dollar invested (Ayers, 1984). Children born in poverty who attended a head start preschool program have half as many criminal arrests, less likelihood of going to jail, higher earnings and property wealth, and a greater commitment to family than similarly situated people who did not attend the program (Alexander, 2012). Reformation: Where teenagers will get ways to entertain themselves, by breaking windows and drinking liquor if not by playing ball or some other sport (Alexander, 2012). Parks and recreational opportunities like the Midnight Basketball and late night recreation center openings are proven effective at reducing crime (Alexander, 2012). When a pilot program in Phoenix, Arizona, kept recreation centers open until 2 a.m., juvenile crimes decreased by as much as 50%. The cost of the program was kept low at only sixty cents per person (Ayers, 1984). Gang Awareness: Kids often turn to gangs because of the absence of pro-social recreational alternatives. Kids also turn to gangs for a sense of being, something they may not be receiving at home (Ekirch, 1987). Parents sometimes do not take enough time with their children to show them their worth at home, giving them a reason to stay instead of roaming the streets. Most often times, gangs are more destructive to property than to human life (Alexander, 2012). When gangs do turn violent, it is most often times directed at â€Å"rival† gangs or families of the rival gang members. Gangs are a problem, not just in big metropolitan cities, but also in small suburban towns and rural America. Gang problems must be addressed at the first signs of potential activity. Society needs to teach children that gangs are not proper places to gain education and experiences, which should be accomplished more effectively in school and at home (Ayers, 1984). Education: Education is the route to better jobs and a potential way out of crime (Ekirch, 1987). In 1991, for the first time in U.S. history, cities spent more on law enforcement than on education (Alexander, 2012). Jurisdictions around the country are cutting education budgets because they lack sufficient funds, while setting aside funds for law enforcement (Ayers, 1984). 16 Schools that engage parents or caretakers in troubled communities show excellent results. Now, I don’t necessarily agree with cutting back on law enforcement spending (Ekirch, 1987). References Alexander, Michelle (2012). The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness, New York. Ayers, Edward L. (1984), Vengeance and Justice: Crime and Punishment in the 19th-Century American South, New York. Blackmon, Douglas A. (2008), Slavery by another Name: The Re-Enslavement of Black Americans from the Civil War to World War II, New York. Bookspan, Shelley (1991). A Germ of Goodness: The California State Prison System, 1851–1944, Lincoln. Christianson, Scott (1998). With Liberty for Some: 500 Years of Imprisonment in America, Boston. Ekirch, A. Roger (1987). Bound for America: The Transportation of British Convicts to the Colonies, 1718–1775, Oxford. Gottschalk, Marie (2006). The Prison and the Gallows: The Politics of Mass Incarceration in America, Cambridge. Hindus, Michael Stephen (1980). Prison and Plantation: Crime, Justice, and Authority in Massachusetts and South Carolina, 1767–1878, Chapel Hill. Hirsch, Adam J. (1992). The Rise of the Penitentiary: Prisons and Punishment in Early America, New Haven Gottschalk, Marie (2006). The Prison and the Gallows: The Politics of Mass Incarceration in America, Cambridge. Hindus, Michael Stephen (1980). Prison and Plantation: Crime, Justice, and Authority in Massachusetts and South Carolina, 1767–1878, Chapel Hill. Hirsch, Adam J. (1992). The Rise of the Penitentiary: Prisons and Punishment in Early America, New Haven Source document

International Marketing and Branding for Hotels Literature review

International Marketing and Branding for Hotels - Literature review Example From this discussion it is clear that  the Handbook of Hospitality Marketing Management edited by Haemoon Oh and Abraham Pizam also talks of the increasing market share of branded hotels. The share of total room supply by branded hotels in the US increased from 61% in 1990 to over 70% in 2000. The handbook also points out that a majority of business and leisure travellers prefer to stay at branded hotels rather than ‘unflagged’ operations. Hotel guests perceive relatively lower risk in choosing a branded hotel as compared to choosing an independent hotel.As the paper highlights  Prof. Chekitan Dev of the Cornell University writes that the hotel industry has become a complex, fragmented, global and competitive brand business with over 300 international brands operating in the market. The brand structure in the hotel industry varies from owner operators, to managed properties and franchisees. Managed and franchised hotel properties often change brands. Prof. Dev writes that there is an urgent need to fill many gaps in our understanding of brand management in relation to the hotel industry.  The American Hotel & Lodging Association (AHLA) reports that in 2013, 41% of their customers travelled for business and 50% travelled for leisure. The profile of the typical business traveller is male (64%), age 35 – 54 (52%), employed in a professional or managerial position (61%), with an average household income of $ 127,000.

Reasearch project managment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Reasearch project managment - Essay Example Furthermore, these commodities are leading causes of pollution since they undergo combustion prior to their use leading to the emission of greenhouse gases that pollute the atmosphere (EREC 2010). As apparent in recent findings, countries within the European Union continue to record an increase in the demand for energy generated from renewable sources. From the sample size used in the research, estimations indicate that an increase in energy consumption will be recorded in the next decade due to continuity in the growth of the population. Normally, the developed countries are the principal consumers for energy. This is attributable to their increased utilization of technology and items that use energy to run operations (EREC 2010). The categories of the energy, which are used in such countries, include electricity, solar, wind and fossil fuels. Scientifically, it will be important for nations to educate its citizens on the roles they can play in promoting the use of renewable sources. The research intended to establish the factors that influenced consumption of energy within the European Union basing on percentage figures. As apparent in the findings, there was an expectation that pollution would increase based on the demand for fuel and other sources of energy. Therefore, authorities should devise measures of curbing the negative environmental effects associated with energy consumption (EREC 2010). The use of energy commodities is advantageous; however, regulatory mechanisms should be adopted to limit the detrimental impacts that cause environmental pollution. The need for control mechanisms is partly attributable to the colossal sums that countries within the EU spend in meeting their energy needs. Research indicates that the gross national savings for the member countries should focus on electricity production. Concerns focusing on

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Moving Beyond Customer Service - Essay Example 2. The communication techniques used by the staff of the hotel, including those at the front desk and at Ballroom A, were very courteous. Unfortunately, the general manager of the hotel was arrogant and disrespectful to the hotel guests. A potential conflict may be avoided if the general manager did not express his emotions with regards to how frustrated he has become with regards to persons with disabilities. Escalation of conflict from potential to actual may be prevented by considering how the client must feel that he could not attend the wedding because his wheelchair could not pass through the function room. A pleasing tone in communicating to the guests may also prevent the escalation of the conflict. 3. One conflict involved the non-availability of a room for one hotel guest, despite her presentation of a confirmation number for a reservation that was made two weeks earlier. A solution to this problem would involve the immediate provision of a room for this particular guest and possibly an additional feature, such as a free dinner from the hotel’s dining room, free of charge. The other conflict involved the inability of a disabled guest to get into the function room of a wedding. A possible solution to this conflict would involve the movement of tables in the function room and be assisting the guest in getting into the wedding reception. 4. The staff members of the hotel did not take full responsibility for resolving the conflicts because they called on the general manager for solutions to these problems. Conflicts could have been prevented if the front desk clerk provided a room for to the first hotel guest. In the case of the wedding incident, the situation could have been improved if the hotel assistant took the responsibility of assisting the guest in getting through to the wedding reception without the help of the general manager.

Negotiation & cross cultural communication Essay

Negotiation & cross cultural communication - Essay Example It is noteworthy to mention that the company has successfully fulfilled all â€Å"minimum† requirements required by the State. Therefore, to hold the company legally wrong would not be practically possible. The company has a strong case since it has complied with the legal requirements. The question now arises as to the ‘ethical’ obligations of the company in a foreign land- a case that has historically been a complex one. The Chinese negotiator employs a mix of ‘win-win’ and ‘win-lose’ strategies (Fang, 2006). Ultimately, however, the choice of either strategy is dependent of the level of trust prevalent in the situation (Fang, 2006). Therefore, as mentioned earlier, the development of trust between the two parties by the company shall be a deciding factor. In this case, however, it is highly likely that the Chinese farmers shall deploy a competitive negotiation style (as opposed to a co-operative one) due to the presence of foreigners ( the British and Germans running Zhengcheng in this case) (Fang, 2006). High-ranking employees must, therefore, be sent to negotiate with the farmers as a sign of respect and regard to their concerns (Faure, 1998). The individuals dealing with the Chinese must demonstrate significant level of patience and power to take decisions. The negotiating team must include a lawyer who’s thoroughly abreast of Chinese law as well as international best practices. This individual shall also strengthen the link between the foreign party and the Chinese farmers. Furthermore, it would be fruitful to include the company’s Chinese counterparts during the discussion as these shall act to enhance the level of trust between the two parties. Given their native Chinese ‘sense’ they shall be able to understand and respond to the underlying Chinese tricks in a better manner compared to the Westerners (Fang, 2006). Considering the fact that the Chinese tend to have a low level of tr ust for foreign stakes in their land, it would also be useful to include government support for Zhengcheng’s operations during the negotiation process. Towards the end, it is highly desirable to demonstrate to the Chinese that similar contractual agreements have been formerly accepted by other Chinese parties (Fang, 2006). The Chinese are highly risk-averse individuals; hence, by doing so the company would majorly mitigate the risks faced by the Chinese farmers. However, this may not be possible given that it is a first-time situation in this case. The company lawyer, however, may be able to assist in this regard and demonstrate cases of other Western companies reaching similar agreements with the Chinese in the past. The communication process in this case is a complex one since it involves taking into account various cross-cultural dynamics between the parties. The major issue is the ethical concerns by residents of China regarding Zhengcheng Ltd.’s waste disposal mec hanisms that have contaminated the production of lychees. It is in the best interests of the company to deploy significant level of culture-specific communication strategies to deal with the concerns of the Chinese farmers. It is imperative that the Western party engages in pre-negotiation discourse with the Chinese farmer

Small business taxation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Small business taxation - Essay Example Similarly, some activities of the incorporated may be economically similar to those of the unincorporated small businesses. These activities may be similar in economic terms but they are different legally and in terms of rights and obligations. Crawford and Freedman suggest that these different types of entities could be treated in the same way for tax purposes, but it may not be achievable to do so in a straight forward manner because differences in legal forms between such entities have significant practical implications on taxation. Some of the treatments of taxation of employees and self-employed people may be based on receipts and tax rates. Providing the same tax treatment in relation to receipts may not be possible because receipts vary in nature (Crawford & Freedman, 2008). Business receipts cannot be equated to employees’ receipts. Business receipts need to be treated under rules that may derive profit figure. Furthermore, receipts of companies still require to be deducted for the payment of salaries or shareholders’ dividends. In terms of similar tax rate across the small business spectrum, aligning tax rates to on different levels of income across the incorporated and unincorporated small businesse s requires the analysis of tax charged at both corporate and personal level. This is structurally difficult. The second reason why it is not possible to treat the two types of entities similarly in terms of tax rates and receipts for taxation purposes is because there is a trend in which labour is taxed differently from capital. Higher taxes are often levied on labour than on capital. This causes differentials in tax treatment for different small businesses. Due to this differential in tax rates, there is an incentive of reduced taxes for converting labour income into capital income if possible (Crawford & Freedman, 2008). Incorporation of a small or big business leads to higher scope of conversion of labour income such

Energy from Municipal Solid Waste in the U.K Dissertation

Energy from Municipal Solid Waste in the U.K - Dissertation Example Based on this research energy production is an important practice for the successful running of communities, cities and countries. With the advancing use of technology and other forms of machinery the world over, the use of various forms of energy (power) to run machinery for both domestic and industrial purposes is inevitable. But one critical situation that seems to be developing very fast is the seemingly expensive cost of energy for domestic and industrial use. Studies have however showed that energy would generally be expensive when demand for the product is higher than supply can meet. This means that one important problem that the United Kingdom must be seeking to tackle if it does not want to deal with high cost of energy is to look critically at the making of the availability of energy abundant. To do this, sources of energy must be diverse and easy to come by. It is also important that the cost of production of these energies become highly economical. This is because even i f the source and supply of energy is abundant but its cost of production is high, chances are that the consumer would have to buy the energy at higher price. More to the issue of availability is the issue of environmental protection in the quest of supplying uninterrupted and affordable sources of energy. Indeed, energy sources that are produced with consequential effects on the environment are as hollow as they were not produced at all. This is because the situation creates a typical scenario of ‘robbing Peter to pay Paul’. ... Basically, such claims have only remained hypothetical with very minimal scientific researches to back them. This is a major problem that needs to be addressed because by addressing the problem, there is every indication that this is going to do a lot of good to science as a subject, mechanical engineering as a discipline and United Kingdom in general. 1.3 Research Aims and Objectives The overall aim of this research is to find out the potential of energy from municipal solid waste over other forms of energy. To do this, there is the need for setting specific objectives. This is because specific objectives are minor goals that need to be achieved before the overall aim can be said to be achieved. Below are the specific objectives that need to be achieved for the overall research aim to be achieved: 1. To critically scrutinise the position of the United Kingdom in tapping the potentials in energy from municipal solid waste by the use of PESTLE analysis 2. To find out how PESTLE analys is on municipal solid waste energy management in the United Kingdom favours of disfavours the country’s potential to maximise the use of energy from municipal solid waste 3. To outline the various solid waste management options available to the United Kingdom as a nation 4. To bring out the waste legislation in the United Kingdom that controls municipal solid waste management and handling 5. To relate the legislation discussed above to how they impede or promote the fulfilment of energy generation from municipal solid waste 6. To establish the environmental impact of energy recovery from municipal solid waste 7. To design a model solid waste energy extraction plant for use at medium scale level 1.4 Significance of the Study The specific objectives outlined

Netflix Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

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The Lord of the Rings Essay Example for Free

The Lord of the Rings Essay To begin describing my unlikely hero’s we first have to ask ourselves what makes a hero. Is it always a big, strong alpha male with a square jaw and cocky attitude? I hardly think so. I feel that a hero is someone who puts others needs in front of their own to complete whatever task is set before them, even though they may have to give their life in the process, they keep going. Once in a while you come across a story where the hero not only does not fit into the stereotypical hero status but is as far away from what you expect as you can get. The unlikely hero†¦ The unlikely hero is a hero who never wanted to be a hero. The unlikely hero proves that anyone can make it as a hero. This diamond in the rough disguises his true potential until tough times call for his aid. He is greatly unsure of himself and often unsure on what to do. He just knows that something has to be done. The odds are usually greatly in favor of the villains and there is much to overcome, both mentally and psychically. My unlikely heroes are Frodo from the Lord of the Rings (Tolkien) and Pug from the Riftwar Saga. Both of these unlikely heroes must overcome great odds to complete quests that are thrust upon them. One, a small hobbit with little knowledge of the world outside of his home in the Shire, the other, a small orphan boy from the rustic town of castle Crydee. Neither is aware of the dangers that await them or that their lives are about to change forever. Frodo Baggins is a hobbit. Hobbits are short and stocky and do not go out very often. Life outside the Shire does not concern them too much and they are very content on staying on their own land doing what pleases them. Frodo lives with his uncle Bilbo in his hobbit hole Bags End, a house carved into the side of a hill. Frodo is usually quiet and reserved and does not like to cause a scene. (Tolkien) While living with his uncle Bilbo, Frodo is left in the Shire as heir to Bags End and all of the possessions. This included a magic ring. All Bilbo knew about the ring is that it turned the wearer invisible; the true nature of the ring had become lost to history. After keeping the ring hidden for 17 years the wizard Gandalf came to Frodo to tell him that it is The One Ring of the Dark Lord Sauron and that his agents are searching for it. Gandalf informs Fordo he must take the ring to Rivendell, home of the house of Elrond, an elf lord in order to keep it out of the hands of the Nazgul, Sauron’s agents. (Tolkien) At the start of his journey Frodo is joined by his friend and gardener Samwise Gamgee, and his cousins Meriadoc Brandybuck and Peregrin Took. They leave the shire for Rivendell and almost instantly they are tracked by the Nazgul, barely escaping. They make it to an inn in the town of Bree where they are joined by Aragorn who helps them escape their next attack and guide them to Rivendell. Once in Rivendell there is a meeting on what to do about the ring. There are representatives from each race at the meeting. They come to the conclusion that the ring is to be destroyed but an argument ensues on who will take possession of it to destroy it. Then Frodo volunteers for the task and everyone else takes an oath to protect him on his journey to Mordor to destroy the ring in the fires of Mount Doom. (Tolkien) There are many things that Frodo must overcome in order to complete his task. The ring drives the humans around it mad and they will eventually try to kill Frodo for it. Frodo is also hunted at every turn by Orcs and every other being that Sauron has under his control. Frodo eventually has to leave all of his companions behind with the exception of Sam in order to protect the ring from those that wish to use the rings power. Frodo and Sam made their way through Emyn Muil, followed by the creature Gollum. As they finally reached Mount Doom, Gollum reappeared and attacked Frodo, who beat him back. He continued on while Sam fought with Gollum. Having finally reached the Sammath Naur, or Crack of Doom, however, Frodo lost the will to destroy the Ring, and instead put it on, claiming it for himself. Gollum got past Sam and attacked the invisible Frodo, biting off his finger, and finally regained his precious. As he danced around in elation, Gollum lost his balance and fell with the Ring into the lava. The Ring was thus destroyed, Saurons power lost and his realm ended. Frodo and Sam were rescued by Great Eagles as Mount Doom erupted. (Tolkien) Pug is the child of unknown parents, an orphan abandoned at a monastery near Crydee, a town on the north-west coast of the Kingdom of the Isles. As a boy, he is sent to Castle Crydee and is adopted by Megar, the castle keeps cook. He grows up there, becoming the closest friend of Megars son, Tomas, becoming almost a brother to him. While gathering shellfish at age 13, Pug is caught in a storm, his ankle is sprained, and he is charged by a wild boar. He is saved by a franklin named Meecham, who is in the service of the court Magician Kulgan. (Fiest) Kulgan discovers Pugs talent for magic and takes him as his apprentice on Choosing Day. Under Kulgans tutelage, Pug makes satisfactory progress in the theory of magic, but finds himself unable to cast spells in the traditional way. Pug appears to suffer some form of mental block. Kulgan decides that as a foil to Pugs very logical mind, Pug is to be taught equestrian skills. This leads to Pug being selected to accompany Princess Carline (daughter of the Duke of Crydee) into the countryside on a ride. During the course of this ride, they are attacked by two trolls; Pug manages to defend the princess demonstrating skill first with a sling and then with his unexpected success in casting a spell, his first of any power. The spell causes the trolls excruciating pain and they drown. Kulgan voices to Pug that this is a skill unheard of in Midkemian magic. Casting this particular spell without a device to focus the power was impossible. Casting the spell in the manner in which Pug did should have caused great pain to himself instead of the Trolls. Upon return to Crydee, Pug earns the gratitude of the Duke and the affection of Carline, Duke Borrics beautiful, but willful, daughter. As a reward for this feat, Pug is made a squire and was granted land, to be held by the crown until the age of majority. Then, mysteriously, the Tsurani invade Crydee. A bitter nine year war ensues at the start of which, Pug is captured while helping Kulgan get safely away from a skirmish and taken to Kelewan, kept at first as a swamp slave, cutting timber and pulp for the Tsurani. He is liberated from the swamps by Clan of Tsurani nobles, and instructed to tutor their sons in the ways of the Kingdom. Pug is respected but never allowed to forget that he is nothing but a slave. During this time Pug meets and falls for Katala, a slave girl of great beauty and wit, and Laurie, a former Troubador from the Kingdom, most recently a friend and confidant of Pug. However, one day Pugs former training is recognized by a Tsurani Great One. Pug is trained as a Greater Path Magician, and is remarkable in many ways. His outworld status (as well as his former status as slave, enemy and lesser path apprentice) makes him something of a celebrity. Pug is renamed Milamber. Fiest) Pug becomes instrumental in bringing the Riftwar to an end, by destroying the planetary rift between Kelewan and Midkemia, in an effort to stop the return of the enemy to Midkemia. When the Riftwar ends, Pug is rewarded with the title to the island of Stardock, previously gifted to him by Duke Borric for saving his daughter. It is also revealed that after he had been considered dead, the Duke gave him a name in memorial, adopting him into the ConDoin family, effectively making him an adopted member of the royal family. Fiest) Midkemia is very similar to Earth in climate, and its flora and fauna. It has three continents: Triagia, Novindus and Winet. It has two oceans, though there are various names for them depending on the continent or nation. The Endless Sea is west of Triagia and is east of Novindus where it is called the Blue Sea. The Sea of Tears is east of Triagia and west of Novindus where it is called the Green Sea. (Fiest) Tolkien prepared several maps of Middle-earth and the regions of Middle-earth in which his stories took place. Some were published in his lifetime, though some of the earliest maps were not published until after his death. The main maps were those published in The Hobbit, The Lord of the Rings, The Silmarillion, and Unfinished Tales. Most of the events of the First Age took place in the subcontinent Beleriand, which was later engulfed by the ocean at the end of the First Age; the Blue Mountains at the right edge of the map of Beleriand are the same Blue Mountains that appear on the extreme left of the map of Middle-earth described in the Second and Third Ages. Tolkiens map of Middle-earth, however, shows only a small part of the world; most of the vast lands of Rhun and Harad are not shown on the map, and there are also other continents. (Tolkien) The two unlikely heroes are a lot alike as well as being very different. Pug has many powers he can use later on in the books to help him do what needs to be done. Frodo just has his will and the help of Sam. No matter how hard things became, they both pressed on in order to save their world.

Workers Should Not Be Laid Off Essay Example for Free

Workers Should Not Be Laid Off Essay In the recent past companies have been structuring their management and production processes that has led to massive cut down of jobs. As a result many employees have had to lose their jobs. Though, the companies do this in order to improve their returns that is, reducing production cost, the impact it is creating is far much more than the company can realize. As much as the main objective of the companies is making profit, companies have a social responsibility to ensure they do not impact the society negatively. Lying off of workers leads to untold suffering to the individuals being laid off, the family and the society as a whole. My position on this issue is very clear; companies should not layoff their workers. (Williamson 1985) The issue of lying of employees is both a social and an economic issue that must be observed from several angles before being implemented. Though, the companies have to undertake new technology which leads to improved quality and low cost of production, profits should not be the only driving force of a company. As companies layoff their workers a lot of suffering in many families do occur. Many families who depend on the working member of the family are affected negatively. Many families depend on the head of the family to provide for them, in case he loses a job, then the whole family will have to go without the support of the head of the family, in this case the father. In most cases the father supports around four members of the family and that will mean that five people are going to be affected financial. It is thus, important for the companies to halt this layoff. With high unemployment levels growing, layoff of workers will further complicate the situation. The economy of the country will be affected and also the community as whole will suffer (Williamson 1985). Unemployment is said to be the major reason for high poverty level in any country. It is estimate that currently the level of unemployment is at 12%, if the companies continue lying off their workers then the level unemployment definitely will increase. This of course will increase the poverty levels in the country. As communities and the society try to fight the issue of unemployment, companies should also try and create more job opportunities rather than reduce the existing ones. Unemployment apart from being the main cause of poverty can also lead to social crimes such as prostitution, and theft. This occurs due the fact that those being laid off may not have other means to getting money thus; get themselves in social crimes in order to get money to sustain them such issues affects the community negative and leads to the community having to deal with the social crime and how it can prevent them. Losing a job is very painful and traumatic, the employees who are laid off feel as if they are useless and undergo a lot of pain when adjusting to conditions of being unemployed. Many workers who are laid off end up wasting their skills and experiences that they have gained during their time in the company. Without proper counseling of the laid off workers many end up being social misfits and thus, become a burden to the family and the society as a whole. There are cases where by, the laid off workers has a lot of unsettled debts, such a person at times may end up highly stressed and suffer psychologically, at times such people commit suicide if they can not cope with the stress. Such issues when looked at bring to question the moral issue of companies in lying off workers. It is important for the companies to consider the well being of their workers and how they will survive being implementing such measures. Many people do agree that, the issue of lying off workers do not translate to an improved economy or cost reduction on the side of the company (Williamson 1985).. The company may reduce the workers but, still will lose a lot expertise from the workers being laid off. The cost of installing machines also are high and in many occasion machine breakdowns lead to enormous lose to the companies involved. Besides the innovations and creativity that the human worker has goes with the worker upon the worker being laid off. Machines also at times fail to do the work as a human being could have done it. These limitations when put in consideration suggest that laying off of workers as a negative effect both on the company and also to the worker. In terms of career development, lying off of workers leads to career distractions and career stagnation of workers the affected persons in many occasion loses track of his/her career development when laid off. To the society, it impacts negatively as many of promising society members go to waste when laid off. As it can be seen in many cases getting a similar job is difficult and in most cases it takes a lot of time. Though, the companies are justified to take actions to reduce its production cost, and also improve its service delivery, laying off of workers is the last thing a company should do. Workers who lose their jobs in the middle of their careers end up wasting their skills and experiences and in most cases end up not getting a similar job where they can use their skills and experiences. Unemployment which is on increase is further increased by lying off of workers which leads to poverty and consequently social crimes. It is thus, clear, that companies should not lay off workers at any cost as this brings a lot of miseries to the individuals and the society as a whole. (Gerald and Oliu, 2000)

Obesity: Causes, Effects and Treatments

Obesity: Causes, Effects and Treatments Obesity , is one of the common and serious disease over the world. There must be cases of obesity no matter in urban or rural area, as it is a widespread and escalating concern. It does not just happen in adults as children also may have the possibility because they are less concern about their health nowadays. Obesity is actually a condition whereby abnormal or excessive fat accumulation that may impair health and also the genetic and environmental factors that are difficult to control when dieting. For the rate of obesity has been increasing in both adults and children. Obesity has twice increment around the world since 1980 and more than 1.4 billion adults, 20 and older were overweight. From these overweight adults, it has over 200 million men and approximately 300 million women were obese. According to a hefty new analysis from the Global Burden Of Disease Study 2013, it is stated that the number of overweight and obese people rising from 857 million in 1980 to 2.1 billion in 201 3. However, the rate change greatly throughout the world . More than half of the world’s 671 million obese individuals living in only ten countries, which is 15% combined at China and India, more than 13% at USA, Egypt, Brazil, Pakistan, Mexico, Russia, Germany and Indonesia. USA, one of the high-salary countries, has the highest increases in adult obesity, where approximately one third of the adult population are obese. In Australia, it is estimated around 28% of men and 30% of women are obese, and in UK is about a quarter of the population are obese. [ Refrence 1,2 ] There are mainly many risk factors of obesity. Obesity is mainly due to the overindulging unhealthy diet and eating habits. Many people just eat whatever they like without concern about the value of nutritious. Nowadays, many fast food outlets are opened and it is getting more and more all around the corner of the world. Those fast foods are a diet which is high in calories and the trans fats contained may raise the LDL cholesterol, or known as bad cholesterol and leads to heart attack or any other cardiovascular diseases. Examples of such food high in trans fats include French fries and cheese. Eating canned food and drinking too much sugary drinks or alcohol will also cause obesity, as the food and drinks contain high value in fat and sugar. Eating in a large portion and habits of comfort eating are also not good, since forcing yourself to eat much will cause an incomplete digestion. In order to reduce this risk, a healthy and balanced diet must be well-planned daily. A healthy and balanced diet should be consist of 7 main classes of food and the most important thing is to eat more vegetables and fruits. Reduce the intake on foods that are high in sugar and fat and you can also try replace kilojoule heavy desserts with fruits. Eat in a proper portion too to maintain a healthy body and weight. Other than that, lack of physical activity is also the vital factor leads to obesity. Nowadays, many people have jobs that involve sitting at a desk for most a day and also hectic lifestyle. They also rely on transportation such as bus or car rather than walking or cycling. Sometimes, even when the peoples have stress, the ways they choose to relax is by watching TV, playing computer games, and also surfing the internet. This kind of lifestyle can be known as sedentary lifestyle and so did not burn the calories in their body. Besides, if the energy provided by food is not used, the extra energy intake will be stored as fat in the body. Hence, regular exercise must be don e because it helps in burning away the calories in human’s body. To maintain a good health, moderate intensity exercise should be done for at least 1 hour most days of the week. During the day, simple exercise such as take the stairs and also get up often from your chair or sofa may helps too. [ Refrence 3,4,5] Obesity normally occurs when adipose cells, which adipose cells are cells that provide storage for extra energy, are increasing absurdly in size and also the number (hyperplasia). An increase in the size of adipose cell is called hypertrophic, while an increase in number of fat cell is known as hyperplastic. Thus, an increase in hypertrophic or hyperplastic resulting in obesity. Besides, adipose cells also follow a normal pattern of growth and development. For infance, adipose cells more developed and each cell grows greatly, which resulting in hypertrophic or hyperplastic obesity. While for adulthood, a person usually has a normal number of adipose cells, but there is large amount of fat in each cell. In certain extreme cases, adult-onset obesity can be both hypertrophic or hyperplastic. Then, the fat cells do not disappear in adult state once it developed. Furthermore, obesity also develops regularly as weight is gained over a period of time. When amount of energy which also means calories consumed in food and drinks exceed the energy used for exercise and metabolic processes in body, weight gain will occur. This is also known as positive energy balance. The excess energy will be stored as fat. Each kilogram of fat stores around 9000 kcal. When body needs more energy than available from food, the fat can be lost or reduced from the energy stores. This is well known as negative energy balance. So, a lack of energy balance may eventually cause obesity. [ Refrence 6,7 ] Obesity has significant effects for health and it is linked to a wide range of diseases. One of the disease that is normally caused by obesity is coronary heart disease. Coronary heart disease is usually caused by a build-up of fatty deposits on the walls of the arteries around the heart. This layer of build-up acid is normally accumulated from the food that we eat daily. Foods contain high fat value will eventually build up the fatty deposit called atheroma. It is also made up of cholesterol and other waste substances. Once the atheroma build-up on the walls of the coronary arteries, this will make the arteries become narrower and reduce the blood flow to the heart muscle. This process is called atherosclerosis. If more severe, obesity can lead to heart failure which your heart cannot pump enough blood to meet your body requirement. In addition, type 2 diabetes is also one of the health problem caused by obesity. Those who are obese are more likely to develop type 2 diabetes disease . Being overweights will add more pressure on body’s ability to control blood sugar using insulin and so makes it much more likely to develop diabetes. In type 2 diabetes, body produces insulin but its insulin cannot be used properly. The body overproduce insulin at first to keep the blood sugar normal. But overtime, this cause the body to lose ability to produce enough insulin to keep blood sugar level at a normal rate, and will eventually lead to kidney failure and heart disease. Furthermore, obesity may also lead to high blood pressure, which is known as silent killer.The blood wessels need to circulate more blood to the fat tissue, as the extra fat tissue in the body needs nutrient and oxygen to survive. Due to this, the workload of the heart will be increasing because more blood is needed to pump through the additional blood vessels. The more the circulating blood, then there is more pressure on the wall of the artery. Consequently, the higher pressure on the artery wall will increase the blood pressure. [ Refrences 8,9,10] There are actually several ways to treat obesity. Obesity can be cured either by drug therapy or bariatric surgery, as it is a more effective treatment. For drug therapy treatment, there are two types of drug which are recommended as it can be used for long-term, which is orlistat and sibutramine. Orlistat is a gastrointestinal lipase inhibitor which helps to reduce patient’s weight around 3 kg on average and also decrease patients to be high risk in diabetes. It will be effective if low-calorie diet is alongside the treatment. In orlistat way of treatment, the fat is absorbed and digested into body. It then works on small intestine and stomach to avoid the action of two enzymes found in digestive juices. The enzyme is normally to break down the fat which consumed in meal. So, orlistat block the fat from being digested as it will passed out as faeces instead of being absorbed into body. Another drug, sibutramine which is known as a monoamine-reuptake inhibitor, can help to red uce weight and the mean of weight losses is around 4-5 kg, but is related to increase of pulse rate and blood pressure. Sibutramine is called as appetite suppressants in medication class and it works to decrease appetite by acting on appetite control centers in the brain. Furthermore, bariatric surgery , also known as gastrointestinal surgery helps to reduce weight in a rapid way, by altering the digestive process. The operation can be divided into two that is malabsorptive and restrictive. Malabsorptive weight loss surgery exclude almost all of the nutrients of small intestine from digestive tract to decrease amount of nutrients and calories absorbed. For restrictive weight loss surgery, it creates a narrow passage from the upper part stomach to larger lower part to reduce the intake of food and also slowing the passage of food to stomach. [ Refrence 11,12,13 ] In conclusion, obesity disease should be more concerned and awared by everyone in the society as this disease increasingly on the rise nowadays. So, everyone must have well-planned for a health-enhancing lifestyle. Bad habit must be quited as fast as possible to save own life for a good health. There is a saying that healthy food is not tasty but however this is the golden phrase which leads everyone to a long-life span. References Obesity and overweight http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs311/en/ [ Accessed 1 October 2014 ] Obesity rates climbing worldwide, most comprehensive global study to date shows. ScienceDaily. ScienceDaily, 28 May 2014. Available at www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2014/05/140528204215.htm [ Accessed 1 October 2014 ] Causes of obesity. http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/obesity/basics/causes/con-20014834 [ Accessed 2 October 2014 ] Mahshia Dehgan, Noori Akthar-Danesh, Anwar T Merchant. 2005. Childhood obesity, prevalence and prevention. Available from http://www.nutritionj.com/content/4/1/24 [ Accessed 2 October 2014 ] Causes of obesity. http://www.nhs.uk/Conditions/Obesity/Pages/Causes.aspx [ Accessed 2 October 2014 ] David Jone. Development Of Obesity. Available from http://www.selfgrowth.com/articles/Development_Of_Obesity.html [ Accessed 3 October 2014 ] Obesity. How Obesity Develop. http://www.acumedic.com/onestophealth/obesity.htm#article [ Accessed 3 October 2014 ] Health Risk Of Overweight And Obesity. http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/health-topics/topics/obe/risks.html [ Accessed 3 October 2014 ] Coronary Heart Disease. http://www.nhs.uk/Conditions/Coronary-heart-disease/Pages/Causes.aspx [ Accessed 3 October 2014 ] Health Effects Of Obesity. http://stanfordhealthcare.org/medical-conditions/healthy-living/obesity/symptoms.html [ Accessed 3 October 2014 ] Paul E O’Brien, Wendy A Brown and John B Dixon.2005. Obesity, weight loss and bariatric surgery. Available from https://www.mja.com.au/journal/2005/183/6/obesity-weight-loss-and-bariatric-surgery [ Accessed 7 October 2014 ] Orlistat. http://www.patient.co.uk/medicine/Orlistat.htm [ Accessed 7 October 2014 ] Weight loss surgery. http://www.obesityhelp.com/content/wlsurgery.html [ Accessed 8 October 2014 ]